Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending:
Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words.
Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community
Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries
According to Leonard Bloomfield's point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation.
There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form.
A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, . the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. 》
A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix -ly.
The suffix -ly in the word lovely, of course, is not a free form, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form
The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.
1) Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form.
2) Free morphemes 自由词素 are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word.
3) Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word.
4) 2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships:
5) lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words
Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense
There are three types of words according to morphology: Simple words,Compound
words,Complex words ?
Conversion
Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. For example, the verb release is converted to the noun release.
There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion. Full conversion is conversion as already discussed above. Partial conversion is conversion, where a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class The types of conversion contain three major word classes: nouns, verbs and adjectives. Conversion from noun to verb and from verb to noun are the most productive categories. Conversion can be classified into four categories according to word classes. Affixation falls into two categories: prefixation and suffixation and the differences between them are just the differences between prefixes and suffixes. The major prefixes can be classified into 10 categories by their meaning. Negative Prefixes否定前缀
Reversative or privative prefixes逆反前缀 \"
Pejorative prefixes贬义前缀
Prefixes of degree or size表范围和程度的前缀
Prefixes of orientation and attitude表方向和态度的前缀 Locative prefixes方位前缀
Prefixes of time and order表时间和顺序的前缀 Number prefixes数字前缀 Conversion prefixes转化前缀
Miscellaneous prefixes其他类型的前缀
Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Etymology provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language and increases the learner's enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spellings and pronunciations to that of meanings
stem: the part of a word that stays the same when different endings are added to it, for example 'driv-' in 'driving' 】
Infix: a formative element inserted in a word affix: prefix and suffix
prefix: a group of letters that you add to the beginning of a word to make another word. In the word 'unimportant', 'un-' is a prefix.
Prefixes with opposite or negative meanings: dis; -il; -im; -in; -ir; -un-
multi-many; semi-half; anti-against; pro-in favour of; ex-former; post-after; over-too much; under-not enough
Language is a system of symbols based on physiology, psychology and physics. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information used for human communication
in a society
Linguistics is the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification [change] of language.
Linguistics consists of three braches: phonetics, grammar and lexicology Lexicology deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application.
Lexicology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language.
A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one point of time: ）
For example:
Shift: each of two or more periods in which different groups of workers do the same jobs in relay. A group of people who work in this way.
A diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time. Black market 黑市 White market 白市 Gray market 灰市
word is a minimal free form of language which has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. Four points:
(1)A minimal free form of a language; (2)A sound unity;
(3)A unity of meaning; :
(4)A form that can function alone in a sentence.\\
There is no logical or intrinsic connection between a sound and what it refers to. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional. The same language can use the same sound to mean different things and the different languages use different sounds to refer to the same thing.
All the words in a language are termed as vocabulary. However, vocabulary can also be used to refer to all the words in a book, or in a particular historical period of time, or in a dialet, or in a particular discipline, or even to all the words that a person possesses.
1)Denizens: the early borrowed words which have been assimilated and conformed to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.
(2)Aliens: the borrowed words which have retained the foreign way of pronunciation or spelling and have not been assimilated into the English language.
3)Translation-loans: the words and expressions which are formed from the existing English materials, but modelled on the patterns of another language.
(4)Semantic loans: Words which have not been borrowed with reference to the form, but to the meanings.
Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of meaning or deterioration
.What is 'word meaning'
Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and meaning. 意义是名称与意思的联系。
'Meaning' is what the form stands for. 《
Eg: desk: something you sit at and you do your work 2. What is reference所指关系
It is the relationship between language and the world.所指是语言与客观外界之间的相互关系。
By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.通过这种相互关系，说话人指称外界的事物或人。 It is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. For example, the word 'tree' refers to the object 'tree'. 3. What is concept
It is the general idea or meaning which is associate with a word or symbol in a person's mind.
指词或符号在人脑中的大致印象或意义
What 's the relationship between meaning and concept They are closely connected but not identical.
They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. ·
Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. What is sense语义
The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.
What's the difference between reference and sense
Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. 指语言内部的关系。 Reference denotes the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for.
Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. 每个词都有语义，但不一定都有所指。Eg: but, almost. These grammatical words do not refer to anything. And words like God, dragon and phoenix refer to imaginary things. is motivation理据
It refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.理据解释语言符号与意义之间的关系
. Onomatopoeic Motivation拟声理据 -
It means the imitation of sounds by sounds.
Words coined in imitation of the sounds associated with the things named are called examples:Apes gibber. Bears mew ( purr).Eagles bleat. Morphological motivation形态理据 Words which were formed by means of morphological structure belong to the category of motivation by morphology.
Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined.
Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning. 词义有各种相互联系与相互依存的不同成分组成，这些成分就是词义的种类
Grammatical meaning indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm. (语法意义指词义中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义。例如词类、名词的单复数、动词的时态意义及它们的屈折形式 For example : girls, winters, tables, joys
Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. (林承璋：词汇意义是词典中一个独立词的意义。在该词的所有形式中，其词汇意义相同。
Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. ;
概念意义是词典中所给的意义，是词义的核心。 Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc. 联想意义是概念意义的补充意义，是次要意义。它受语言外界因素如文化、经历、宗教、地域、出身、教育等的影响而变化，所以是开放性的，是不定的。
It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. 内涵意义是由概念意义产生的言外之意或联想。 1. What is componential analysis
The analysis of word meanings/componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features 语义特征or sense components语义成分. Componential analysis is on the basis of semantic contrast.
Idiom is a set expression made up of two or more words; it functions as a unit of meaning which cannot be predicted from its literal meaning of its component words. 作为一个意义单位使用的，意义不能从其独立的组成部分得出的一种表达法。 For example, the idiom \"show the white feather\" means \"to show fear\and the meaning of this idiom has nothing to do with \"feather\". 1. Semantic unity语义的整体性
Each idiom is a semantic unity. The semantic unity can be reflected by the fact that the meaning of an idiom is very often not the total sum of the meanings of the constituent words.
The semantic unity can also be shown in the illogical relations between the
literal meanings of the constituent words and the meaning of the idiom 2. Structural stability结构的固定性 。
Structural stability means that the structure of an idiom usually remains unchangeable. In other words, the constituent components of an idiom can not, generally speaking, be replaced.
1) Idioms nominal in nature名词性习语:
They function as nouns in a sentence: white elephant (昂贵而无用的东西brain trust （智囊团）Jack of all trades （博而不精的人high tea（正式茶点），cold shoulder（冷淡），red herring（转移注意力的话或事物）white elephant（无用而累赘的东西 fond dream（黄粱美梦），blue chip（热门的股票） the happy medium（中庸之道）， narrow escape（九死一生），smooth tongue（油嘴滑舌）a fly in the ointment（美中不足之处；使人扫兴的小事）an apple of discord（争端；祸根）a bed of thorns（不愉快的境遇），drug in the market（市场上的滞销商品），a friend at court（有势力的朋友），the milk of human kindness（天生的善心；人情味） a snake in the grass（潜伏的危险；潜伏的敌人）a soldier of fortune（军事冒险家，冒险家the lion's share（最大或最好的份额）， Achilles' heel（唯一致命的弱点），cat's paw（被人利用的人），King's weather（庆典时的晴朗天气），a mare's nest（骗人的东西；混乱）， man's estate（壮年） wear and tear（损耗；磨损），rank and file（普通士兵们；普通成员们）， flesh and blood（亲骨肉，亲属），ways and means（方法，办法），part and parcel（重要或必要的部分），the ins and the outs（种种复杂详情），ups and downs（盛衰；沉浮）， the pros and cons（赞成者和反对者；正面和反面的理由） sheet anchor（最后的或主要的靠山），brain trust（智囊团），
a moot point（尚未定论的问题），brain drain（智囊枯竭) Idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语：
They function as adjectives in a sentence. .: cut and dried （枯燥乏味的 wide of the mark （离目的远的） up in the air high and mighty（趾高气扬；神气活现），null and void（无效）， free and easy（不拘形式的；随便的）， fair and square（正大光明的，此习语也可作状语用），high and dry（孤立无援，此习语也可作状语用），cut and dried（呆板的，没有生气的on the go（忙个不停；活跃着）， out of sorts（不舒服的；不高兴的）， beyond the pale（失宠；丢脸，此习语也可作状语用）， behind the eightball（处于不利地位）， on edge（紧张不安；易怒）wide of the mark（远未射中目标；毫不相关），wet behind the ears（缺乏经验的）， up to the hammer（第一流的，极好的），up in the air（十分激动；气愤；悬而未决，此习语也可作状语用）as stiff as a poker（生硬，刻板），as cool as a cucumber（泰然自若；极为冷静），as slippery as an eel（油滑的；不可靠的）， as meek as a lamb（非常温顺）bide one's time（等待时机）, hang fire（延迟）， bite one's tongue off（后悔自己说过的话）， draw a blank（终于失败），face the music（勇于承担后果）， spill the beans（不慎泄密）， jump the queue（插队）， fit the bill（适合某人的目的）， miss the boat（坐失时机）， make the grade（成功）beat about the bush（旁敲侧击），fall by the way（中途退出），bark up the wrong tree（攻击错了目标）， dip into one's purse（乱花钱）， jump down one's throat（突然粗暴地回答或打断某人；使某人哑口无言）， breathe down one's neck（催逼某人干事；严密监视某人的行动）,play for one's own hand（为自己的利益而做）burn the candle at both ends（过分地耗费精力）， pull the wool over one's eyes（蒙蔽某人）， put a spoke
in one's wheels（破坏某人的计划）， take the change out of someone（对某人报复），keep one's head above water（免遭灭顶；不背债），have a（good） head on one's shoulders（有见识或能力） make short work of（迅速处理），make a clean breast of（和盘托出），get wind of（风闻），pick holes in（在......中找毛病），poke one's nose into（探听；干涉），dance attendance on（奉承）go easy（从容不迫，安闲），come clean（全盘招供），sit pretty（处于极为有利的条件；过舒服的生活；成功）， fall flat（完全失败）， sing low （不固执己见发表见解；措辞稳健）， make good（成功）Idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语： They function as adverbials in a sentence:
.: tooth and nail竭尽全力 in nothing flat不久 through thick and thin不顾艰难险阻heart and soul（全心全意地）， tooth and nail（竭尽全力地），hammer and tongs（全力以赴地），bag and baggage（完全地，彻底地in a breeze（轻而易举地）， with flying colors（出色地；成功地）， behind the scenes（在幕后）， by the way（顺便说）between the devil and the deep blue sea（进退维谷）through thick and thin（不顾艰难险阻，在任何情况下He that sups with the devil must have a long spoon.（和坏人打交道，必须提高警惕。） The pot calls the kettle black.（责人严而律己宽。）The mills of God grind slowly.（天网恢恢，疏而不漏。）
He laughs best who laughs last.（谁笑在最后，谁笑得最美。）
One cannot make a silk purse out of a sow's ear.（巧妇难为无米之炊。） Nothing succeeds like success.（一事成功，事事顺利。）Nothing venture, nothing have.（不入虎穴，焉得虎子。）Like attracts like.（物以类聚。） Enough is as good as a feast.（知足常乐。） Speech is sliver，silence is gold.（雄辩是银，沉默是金。）Soft fire makes sweet malt.（好事多磨，慢工出细活。）Fish begins to stink at the head．(上梁不正下梁歪。)Never offer to teach fish to swim.（不要班门弄斧。） Feed a cold and starve a fever.（伤风时宜吃，发烧时宜饿。）Teaching focus:
Polysemy 一词多义关 Homonymy 同形同音异义关系Synonymy 同义关系Antonymy 反义关系Hyponymy 上下义关系Semantic Field 语义场 ·
Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义 \\Diachronic approach历时研究方法 It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。 The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义. Later meanings are called derived meanings派生意义.
Synchronic approach共时研究方法
Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time. 从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。
The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义. The derived meanings are secondary in comparison.
Semantically, radiation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. 从语义学上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，
次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射
Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。 ，
Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词Homographs同形异义词Homophones同音异义词
Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common. Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.同义词是发音和拼写不同但在意义上极为相似或完全相同的词。 Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as part of speech, for a verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym.同义词在外延意义和词性上要具有相似性 ）Absolute synonyms绝对同义词
Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning. This kind of synonyms are rare and may be found in special terminology such as compounding and composition in lexicology, malnutrition and undernourishment in medicine. Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms.
What are antonyms Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 反义词可被定义为意义上对立的词 1
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